Anthropology is the holistic, bio-cultural and comparative study of humanity. It is the systematic exploration of human biological and cultural diversity across time and space. Examining the origin of and changes in, human biology and culture, anthropology provides explanations for similarities and differences between human and their societies. For the understanding of human nature in whole it uses its two major subject areas; cultural and biological anthropology. Cultural anthropology consists of three main sub-disciplines such as Ethnology, Archaeology and Linguistic while Physical anthropology consisting of five sub disciples as Human Morphology, Human Biology & Genetics, Human Palaeontology, Primatology, and Human Ecology. Applied Anthropology encompasses any use of the knowledge and techniques of these major subject areas to identify assess and solve practical problems. It can be defined as the application of anthropological perspectives, theory empirical knowledge of cultures, and methods to help assess and solve human problems.
American anthropological association (AAA) has formally acknowledged a public service role by recognizing that anthropology has two dimensions:
(1) academic or general anthropology and
(2) practicing or applied anthropology
This second dimension of anthropology has developed from the early 1970’s with the interests of the anthropologists towards the practical application of their knowledge to help people and organizations.
Because of anthropology’s breadth, it has many applications that applied anthropologist can engage in works such as in the areas of public health, family planning, business, economic development and culture resource management etc. For example, applied medical anthropologist considers both the sociocultural and biological context and implications of disease and illness. Perceptions of good and bad health, along with actual health threats and problems, differ among societies. Various ethnic groups recognize different illness, symptoms, and causes and have developed different health-care systems and treatment strategies. Biological anthropologists apply their expertise in programmes aimed at public health nutrition genetic counseling, aging, substance abuse, and mental health. Forensic anthropologists work with the police, medical examiners, the courts and international organizations to identify victims of crime, accidents, wars, and terrorism, most of them seek humane and effective ways of helping local people.
To engage in above works applied anthropologists should process special qualifications than other professionals. What are the special talents or insights do applied anthropologists have in problem-solving and in the contributions of knowledge to such programmes and agencies?
One way to answer this question is to think of cultural anthropologists sharing a certain worldview which differ somewhat from that of other professional people. This worldview includes how we think about people and groups: the assumption we share, the categories we use to describe and analyze ideas and behavior, kinds of information we think it is important to collect to understand a human group, how we believe this information can best be collected, and so forth. Anthropologists gain knowledge about human and culture including worldviews through their graduate training, field works, and other experiences through members of other cultures.
Applied anthropologists specific attention on small-scale communities gives them much knowledge about its culture and people. This knowledge is provided to outside agencies and organizations to make consistency with the relevant culture and people in project planning and policy making etc. Without the knowledge of the community’s culture and its member’s perceptions, new planning’s and programmes would not persist for long. Because of the anthropology’s long-standing emphasis on first-hand fieldwork, we believe it is important to devote time and resources, prior to planning a project or programme, to determine what the people affected are doing and thinking. Whenever their goals, almost all projects introduce some kind of change to a group, and prior knowledge of the culture is essential to plane and implement the changes. Many projects fail because those who design them know little about the “target population”.
In the work with the people, anthropologists try to make themselves aware of the customs and beliefs of a community. Thus works and planning’s of new projects and community developments programmes should commence with the knowledge of the particular culture and its whole belief system. For an example: The Zulus of southwestern Netal had a bad health condition in 1940; their infant mortality was very high, and more than 80% of the people showed signs of malnutrition. Pellagra and kwashiorkor were common and there was much tuberculosis, venereal diseases, and dysentery. One of the efforts members of the health center was to urge the Zulus to consume more eggs and milk. For various reasons, an egg was not commonly eaten; it was through uneconomical to eat an egg that might later hatch, and eating eggs were considered a sign of greed and a source of licentiousness among girls. Milk proved to be more of a problem. The Zulus raise cattle and are much attached to them. Milk was thus available and was consumed by the men, but complex of beliefs restricted milk consumption by women. The milk produced by a man’s cattle can only be consumed by members of his kin groups. One cannot get milk from another family. Moreover, once women have started to menstruate, they must not pass near cattle or drink milk. A married woman who lives with her husband’s people is under a double restriction, being in a different king group. Hence married women were the persons least likely to drink milk. Members of the health center could not challenge this belief system. At the same time, they wanted to provide better nutrition, including milk, for expectant and lactating mothers. The problem seemed insuperable. But there turned out to be a surprisingly easy partial; solution: an introduction of powdered milk. The Zulus knew that this was milk, but it was different, not subject to the taboos and restrictions of “real” milk and milk consumption rapidly rose. The workers of health center ware also able to increase the growing and consumption of green vegetables. Through their efforts, there was a marked decrease in malnutrition within a 10 year period. The incidence of kwashiorkor fell from 12 or more cases a week less than 12 cases a year. This is how applied anthropologist uses his knowledge of cultures and belief systems in problem-solving. More than other professionals, anthropologists listen to local voices as they are more aware of people with specific cultures all around the world.
But the Sri Lankan context is more different than other countries. Community-based development programmes and much other policy planning have caused to, many social problems. Some have destructed specific cultures completely. For an example in 1960’s Mahaveli Development Project plundered traditional habitations from Sri Lankan Indigenous Groups (Vedda people) and restricted them in to few villages. From that onward, their unique culture began to diminish.
Image shows Budda and Ganesha Deity images on the wall of a Yakkure house. Yakkure of people are believed to be descendants of Sri Lankan Indigeousp people; the Veddas resettles from their traditional land affected by the Mahaveli Development project. (Image by Tharaka Ananda)
Specific cultures formed as a result of interaction with the environment. The whole cultural system depends on that particular environment; with the destruction of the interrelation between the environment and the people of that community; culture begins to disappear.
Our indigenous people subsist on hunting and gathering. Their religious practices and whole belief system had a strong relationship with the environment. Their culture begins to diminish after they were resettled in new lands as it broke the link between them and the environment.
Various cultural practices are entwined together to form one fully integrated cultural system. When one or more traits get disrupted it affects the whole cultural system. By the development project majority of the Indigenous groups were uprooted from their traditional lands. Consequently, their fully integrated cultural system was disturbed and began to collapse.
Though they were given new lands they could not adapt to the new environment. Now they have tended to market their culture for a living. Majority of the Indigenous People have found new occupations. Even when these changes are most beneficial and adaptive that may be difficult for individuals within the culture to accept it. Thus if the government was aware of the culture of these specific people and had been used applied anthropologist’s knowledge to this Development Project Indigenous uniqueness and much of their culture could have protected for the future.
Many of examples can be given from the Sri Lankan experience. Development project and other works that plans for the people in a particular area, should integrate with their culture, belief system as well as their worldview. Then only people will accept it and continue it to the future. For that the professionals who are knowledgeable about community’s culture should assist. Together we can make a betterment future for all the people, live in every corner of the country, with their own specific cultures and worldviews.
References
Barnouw, V. (1982) Ethnology: An Introduction to Anthropology, 4th ed, USA, The Dorsey Press, p 316.
Bauer, B.; Singer, M. & Willigen, J. (2006) Reclaiming Applied Anthropology: Its Past, Present, and Future, American Anthropologists, Wiley Publication, USA, 108(1), p 170-190.
Ember, C. (1990) Anthropology, Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hall Inc.
Haviland, W. (1975) Cultural Anthropology, New York, Holt- Rinehart and Winston, Inc, p 363.
Kottak, C. P. (2004) Cultural Anthropology, 10th ed, New York, Mc-Graw Hill.
Kottak, C. P. (2012) Mirror for Humanity: An Introduction to Cultural Anthropology, 8th ed, New York, Mc-Graw Hill, p 16.
Peoples, J. & Bailey, G. (2006) Humanity: An Introduction to Cultural Anthropology 7th ed, USA, Thomson Wadsworth, p 379.
Relethford, J. (2008) Human Species: An Introduction to Biological Anthropology, 7th ed, New York, McGraw-Hill.