Anthropology

Anthropology (from Greek Anthropos-man and logia-study) could be described as the science of human cultural and biological variation and evolution (Relethford, 2008, p. 4). Anthropologist endeavors to study man from an objective and scientific viewpoint. His goal is to arrive at a realistic and unbiased understanding of human diversity (Haviland, 1975, p. 5). Its major objective is to provide an understanding of human variability. However, since there are endless ways in which human beings differ, anthropology must focus its attention on particular kinds of variation. Thus anthropology deals with two major ways in which human beings differ: culturally and biologically (Kelso, 1970, p. 1). The critical aspect of anthropology that sets it apart from other subjects is its cross-cultural, holistic nature (Campbell, 2006, p. 9). Holistic or Holism refers to the study of the whole of the human conditions (Kottak, 2012, pp. 1-2). Almost everything about people interests anthropologists. No place or time is too remote to escape the anthropologist’s notice. No dimension of humankind, from skin color to dress customs, falls outside the anthropologist’s interest (Peoples, 2006, pp. 1-3). Anthropologists focus their attention on human being as they live in every corner of the earth in all kinds of physical environments and they seek to understand human being as total organism who adapt to their environment through a complete interaction with both biology and culture. Further, they endeavor to understand the inner working of a group of people who holds different worldviews, values, and traditions that we do.

For a complete understanding of the human; anthropology uses its two major subfields, each with a specific focus. First cultural anthropology, which is broken down into the subfields of archaeology, linguistics and ethnology. Second physical or biological anthropology is that aspect of anthropology concerned with man as a biological organism. (Physical anthropology is the original term of biological anthropology and it reflects the initial interest anthropologists have in describing human physical variation. The designation of biological anthropology reflects the shift in emphasis to more biological oriented topics, such as genetics, evolutionary biology, nutrition etc…this shift occurred largely because of advances in the fields of genetic since in the late 1950s). Therefore physical anthropologist applies his knowledge of genetics and biochemistry to achieve a fuller understanding of human variation and evolution (Haviland, 1975, p. 6).

The unusual thing about the human animal is that we have advanced culture (The word advanced is used as many types of research have shown that we are not the only animal having culture. Most of non-human primates’ and many insects etc. possess culture). Under the major subfield of cultural anthropology human societies are studied in a cross-cultural perspective (Campbell, 2006, p. 9). It deals primarily with variations in the cultures of populations in the present or recent past. Its subject includes social, political, economic, and ideological aspects of human cultures (Haviland, 1975, p. 25). In their attempt to explain human variation, anthropologists combine the study of both human biology and the culture: which can be briefly defined as “learned and shared patterns of human behaviors” (Nanda, 1980, pp. 4-5).

Culture

Mortar, pestle, and bow traditional food processing and hunting types of equipment used by Meemure people (Image by Tharaka Ananda)

Culture as a core concept in cultural anthropology as well as to understand the work of cultural anthropologist, it is necessary to clarify what we mean when we refer to culture. Human animal’s culture began and developed about 5 million years ago; over his long journey, from primate ancestors to the present Homo sapience sapience (modern human). Influenced the environment and development of the brain have been shaped his culture throughout millions of years to become what he today.

The first important definition of culture is proposed by the British anthropologist, Sir Edward Tylor. Writing in his book “Primitive Culture” (1871) he defined culture as “that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of the society” (Tylor, 1971, p. 1). The crucial phrase here is “acquired…..as a member of society”.  Tylor’s definition focuses on attributes that people acquire not through biological inheritance but by growing up in a particular society in which they are exposed to a specific cultural tradition (Kottak, 2012, p. 18).

This definition effectively suggests the complex nature of culture, but the culture has increased and has become more complex, thus Tylor’s definition has questioned by many scholars. Many of previously unknown cultures had been studied, a number of definitions have suggested over the past years. In the 1950s, Alfred L. Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn examined over two hundred definitions of culture proposed by anthropologists and social scientists, in an effort to arrive at a consensus of what culture is? (Haviland, 1975, p. 10).

Another definition of culture given by Ralph Linton is “A culture is the configuration of learned behavior and results of behavior whose component elements are shared and transmitted by the member of a particular society” (Linton, 1945, p. 32). In his definition, Linton has stated three important characteristics of culture. It is “learned”, “shared” and “transmitted” from others. Thus we can understand culture as traditions and customs, which are transmitted through learning that form and guide the beliefs and behavior of the people (Kottak, 2012, p. 2). The very first exposure to culture begins from one’s own family. We learn how to talk, eat, dress and behave etc. as a first step to be a cultured animal. Then we enter the society as a member of it and began to acquire all about our surrounding cultures through other members and the institutions of the society. Culture includes social and economic systems, marriage customs, religion, philosophy, and all other behaviors that are acquired through the above-stated process of learning rather than through instinct (Relethford, 2008, p. 4). Human isn’t the only animal has culture. They shares society (organized life in groups) with other animals, including baboons, wolves, mole rats, and even ants, however, culture is more distinctly human (Kottak, 2004).

Reputed anthropologist “Bronislaw Malinowski” who introduced the participant observation method into the field of anthropology has defined anthropology as “Cumulative creation of man” (Malinowski, 1944).  From his definition, we can come to a conclusion as “culture is everything about human”. Traditional knowledge and creations, as well as the outcomes of the new technology, are included in the culture. Thus anthropology cannot be defined as a subject which studies only the traditional or peasant societies. If we say so new technologies should not belong to thehuman. As it belongs to human it should be a part of anthropological studies since anthropologists concern relies on every aspect of human being.

For W.H. Goodenough, culture is essentially a set of ideas, including ideas about objects; it does not include the objects themselves. Goodenough writes “A Society’s culture consists of whatever it is one has to know or believes in order to operate in a manner acceptable to its members…” (Goodenough, 1957). According to the Goodenough, culture should be acceptable by its members. For an example, if one specific cultural trait is not accepted by its members it will not be transmitted through generation to generation and will be forgotten in few years or maybe in some decades by the members of that particular society.

As stated above there are hundreds of definitions about the concept of “culture” as it has become more complicated and debated topic among many scholars and researches in many other fields. Thus it shows that the concept of culture cannot be defined merely by one definition. Culture is everything that we can see, through its own members. The way of thinking, behaving, caring about others and the way of relationships etc. are influenced almost by one’s own culture.

We need lots of sound anthropological data on all human groups and their cultures. Culture is a dynamic, hugely variable phenomenon. We cannot capture it and display it in a museum or lab. With the effects of globalization, new innovations, diffusion, migrations, urbanization worlds cultures are at thresholds of disappearing. Thus at present anthropologist’s works are so important than any other time. We are confronted, then, with an urgent job of protecting these diminishing cultures. At present, it is important to be knowledgeable about the concepts of culture and ethnocentrism (the tendency to view one’s own culture as best and to judge the behavior and beliefs of culturally different people by one’s own standards) as we live in multi-cultural and multi-ethnic society.

References

1. Barnouw, V. (1982). Ethnology: An Introduction to Anthropology (4th ed. ed.). USA: The Dorsey Press.
2. Campbell, B. G. (2006). Biological Anthropology: The Natural History of Humankind. Canada: Pearson Education, Inc.
3. Ember, C. R. (1990). Anthropology. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall Inc.
4. Goodenough, W. H. (1957). Cultural Anthropology and Linguistics. Washington: Georgetown University.
5. Haviland, W. A. (1975). Cultural Anthropology. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.
6. Juemain, R. K. (2008). Introduction to Physical Anthropology (11th ed. ed.). USA: Thomson Wadswarth.
7. Kelso, A. J. (1970). Physical Anthropology: An Introduction. New York: J. B Lippincott Company.
8. Kottak, C. P. (2004). Cultural Anthropology (10th ed. ed.). New York: Mc-Graw Hill.
9. Kottak, C. P. (2012). Mirror for Humanity: An Introduction to Cultural Anthropology (8th ed. ed.). New York: Mc-Graw Hill.
10. Linton, R. (1945). The Cultural Background of Personality. New York: Appleton Century Crofts.
11. Malinowski, B. (1944). A Scientific Theory of Culture and Other Essays. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina press.
12. Nanda, S. (1980). Cultural Anthropology. New York: D. Van Nostrand Company.
13. Peoples, J. B. (2006). Humanity: An Introduction to Cultural Anthropology (7th ed. ed.). USA: Thomson Wadsworth.
14. Relethford, J. H. (2008). Human Species: an introduction to biological anthropology (7th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
15. Tylor, E. B. (1971). Primitive Culture: Researches in to the Development of Mythology, Phylosopy, Religion, Art and Customs. London: J. Murray.

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